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Revitalizing Knowledge, Institutions and Identities: The case of Zuni, an American Indian Community |
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The story of most American Indian communities in North America is full of pathos, misery and cultural decline. The problems of liquor addiction, unemployment, obesity and diabetes, shorter life span, etc., are common. The major reason reported is the state policy which not only usurped their lands, sacred sites, and other resource rights but also did not pay sufficient attention to strengthening their own institutions for cultural, natural and other resource management. The reservations created for protecting their limited land territories never provided the kind of resources and attention that mainstream US institutions and communities received. Given such a general situation, there are of course exceptions. Zuni community is perhaps one of the best examples of what self respect, dignity of one’s own knowledge and cultural heritage and collective determination can achieve.This note is based on a personal impression of Prof Anil K Gupta, who visited Zuni community in 1994 |
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"The contrast between a community in relative decline and another trying to put its act together became obvious when one of us visited T’onnoh Odham in Arizona and Zuni in New Mexico. The former community is located on US-Mexican border and is characterized by almost complete absence of cultivation, private tending of animals or other economic enterprises. Most people depend upon the welfare system and all the attendant problems of liquor, delinquency, health, etc., are there. The horses and cattle brought 500 years ago by Spaniards today roam the territory as wild animals. We do not know if there is any other example of a domesticated specie having gone through few hundred years of wild existence. There are one or two ranchers who are trying to tame some of these animals and generate private enterprise. The Community is quite concerned about the plight of their people who live on Mexican side who suffer without welfare (just as people suffer on US side with it!).
The Zuni community in contrast has not only preserved its ancient village as a living community but also has tried to restore old field boundaries, productivity of land, lake and other natural resources, stem the erosion of catchment areas and all this collectively. The Zuni Resource Development Plan has been developed under the Zuni Land Conservation Act of 1990. The long struggle led to a law suit (see box) against the United States by the Zuni tribe. The Act provided compensation of US$ 17 million kept in Zuni Resource Development Trust Fund “for resources damaged as a result of federal improprieties related to Trust responsibility” (Enote, Albert and Webb, 1993). It is not easy to blend traditional structure of governance with modern institutions of jurisprudence, administration and resource management. And yet, this is precisely what Zunis are trying to do.
For example, when they had to delineate farm and grazing land boundaries, what they would do if people did not remember their fields, there were no written records and only few farmers had maintained tradition of cultivation. They used GPS (Geo- positioning System) to resolve their differences. The project staff would go to the field along with the farmers with contending claims. The farmers would argue as to where exactly their boundary lay. Once they arrived at an agreement, the staff would take the reading on GPS. They would go to the office, take a print out of the map and if agreed will authenticate it by signing it.
The restoration of land productivity required evolving institutions for managing grazing, soil and water conservation, conserving and augmenting local crop and horticultural varieties and the cultural and religious sites. Having had a history of betrayed trust, Zunis decided to implement the policy of self governance systematically even if it meant slowing down of decisions.
An Indian Anthropologist, Professor
T.N. Pandey, based in University of California, Santacruz, has made extensive studies of Zuni theocracy and particularly the role of bow Priests and civil leaders in managing the internal law and order and relations with external groups. He highlighted the role specialisation played in Zuni tradition to maintain the knowledge systems, sense of history and above all skills of socio-cultural and physical resource management. The nature, he stressed, was treated as a kin by Zunis. In some respects the cosmology is very similar to Asian or perhaps even African cosmology based on continuity between human and nature life support systems. Apart from Prof. Pandey, Fred Eggan, emeritius professor of anthroplogy in University of Chicago, also served as an expert witness in the land cases of Zunis. Both of them emphasised the strength of oral traditions.
Beyond struggle!
It is difficult to to say as to what inferences can be drawn from the story of Zuni’s struggle for their rights forcing the US government to not only provide compensation but also respect alternative models of governance and resourcemanagement. The challange is to persuade younger people who were educated without much opporunity to understand their langangue and tradition that they should build upon a long continuity if for no other reason, then to show what sustainable living is all about. In the context of exposure to American values of consumerism, individualism, and short time frame, this challenge is not going to be easy.
The fact taht Zunis have valued individual excellence is obvious from their respect for specialisation and an ethics of noncopying in crafts. The key is to marry communitarian spirit with individual as well as collective IPRs. Zunis’ experience can be instructive in this regard.
Protecting Intellectual Properties in Traditions:
The case of Zuni Crafts Zuni is a culture which rewards specialists. Since innovations can be seen as “clumsy”, (for they chart new territories) they occur incrementally. In Zuni silversmithing for example, each new idea or technique is added incrementally to the family repertoire.
Arts and crafts at Zuni is a cottage industry and each household is geared for the production of certain kinds of work such a making jewelry, fetishes, pottery, paintings and bead work. Within these specialities, there is little crossing of boundaries. In fact micro- specialities are quite common. For example a silversmith may specialise in needlepoint or petitpoint, cluster, inlay, or channel. Among fetish carvers one may find specialists in reptiles or bears or birds; some may work only in superrealistic styles and other may use older or more abstract styles. Even within micro-specialties, there may be further specialisation; for example in needlepoint one may find raised, curved or standard needlepoint.
Passing on the skills to younger generation
Almost every Zuni learns his/her craft through apprenticeship. Knowledge about Zuni craft is usually transmitted through relatives. “Something as seemingly simple as mixing paint to use on pottery is learned by working with a more experienced potter. If there is too much bee plant in the boiled mixture,the applied paint will flake off in the firing. If there is too much “rock” (hematite) the pigment will rub off. The potter learns these things only by firing pots. To make pottery in a traditional manner means also that one must know where to dig for clay, how to render the raw materials usable, what temper to use and how to fire the pot.”
Ethics of Non-copying
Sometimes this knowledge is held in confidence so that others will not “copy” their techniques. However an ethic of non-coying has also developed, which in turn promotes specialisation. For example within a family of fetish carvers, a sister would prefer not to do mountain lions that are normally done by her brother, without taking his permission. There is little copying of styles without seeking permission of the artist. This specialisation gives the Zunis a sense of worth because of their uniqueness.
(Source: Ostler Jim, The making of Zuni Crafts: The Economics of Specialists, Zuni History, Section 2, pg. 21, 1991.)
References
Enote, James; Albert, Steven and Webb, Kevin (1993) (Ed), “The Zuni Resource Development
Plan: A Program of Action for Sustainable Resource Development”: Zuni Conservation Project
Green, Jesse (1981), (Ed), Zuni: Selected Writings of Frank Hamilton Cushing. The University of Nebraska.
Ostler, Jim (1991), “The making of Zuni Crafts: The Economics of Specialists” , Zuni History Newspaper. Zuni Farming Today and Tomorrow Newsletter, No.2, 1993; No.3, 1994
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| Volume No. |
Honey Bee, 31(1-2) ,37-39, 2020 |
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