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Globalising Knowledge-II |
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Mumu: A traditional method of cooking foods, Papua New Guinea |
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Papua New Guinea Mumu or the earth oven is a part of the culture in Papua New Guinea. The food prepared by this method is cherished by the people. The murmurised foods are reportedly rich in flavour and therefore people prefer these to the foods from conventional ovens. Any type of food can be cooked in the mumu. The mumu is an earth oven that operates by heating stones which are subsequently put into or arranged around and on the food. The heat in the stones is transferred to the food and cooks it. The earth oven is known by various names amongst the South Pacific Islanders. In Samoa, Tonga and Cook Islands it is mumu. In Tahiti it is ahimaa, in Fiji it is lovo, in the Solomon Islands it is moto and in New Zealand it is hang. Generally, black river stones are used and should be heated by hard firewood for the best results. Various food combinations (root crops, vegetables, meat etc) can be made with the sweeter and the more delicate ones being placed on the top. Depending on the quantity of food the duration of murmurisation can be for one, two or several hours and in some cases it can be carried out overnight. Mumu is often used during ceremonies and despite the advent of modern ovens it is still popular at the household level. There are 20 provinces in Papua New Guinea and not all of them use the mumu. It appears to be more common in the highlands where pottery is very limited. A pit is dug and then black river stones are heated in it. The size of the pit and the amount of stones and firewood used depend on the quantity of food to be murmurised. While the stones are being heated, the food is prepared with coconut cream and wrapped in banana leaves. The banana leaves are usually conditioned over the fire that heats the stones and the wrapped food is placed on some of the hot stones. The mumu is left for about four hours with the temperature around the food as high as 250 degree centigrade. All foods are cooked together with baking being the predominant method of cooking because steaming is limited to the moisture in the leaves and foods.Dr. P A Sopade, Food Chain no.25, August 1999, pp.20-21 Vol 10(4) Oct-Dec 1999 Water harvesting and soil conservation in African countries By tuning their ability to understand nature and experiment with the available resources, farmers in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda have developed original, low-cost technologies for water harvesting and soil conservation. Some of the practices involve collecting rainwater from the road and directing it to cultivated fields, reclaiming riverbeds by planting crops and building natural barriers to stop erosion. Based on the findings of a project called ‘Promoting Farmer Innovation’ in East Africa, these technologies will be featured in a book named ‘Farmers’ Initiatives in Land Husbandry’ by Kithinji Mutunga and Will Critchley, published by the Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA), Nairobi. We have selected here, one of these innovative technologies to share the richness of experimentation in everyday life. Road Runoff Harvesting Musyoka Muindu, Mwingi Town, Mwingi District, Kenya Kenyan Musyoka Muindu, 70, has developed a way of harvesting road runoff water and distributing it to his cultivated fields using various types of banks and channels. The owner of a 10-hectare plot, Musyoka grows maize, pigeon pea and beans apart from other crops such as citrus, bananas and grape vines. Besides this, he also keeps livestock. His farm lies by the side of the main Nairobi tarmac road, 10 km out of Mwingi town, Kyethani district. To ensure family food security after retirement – and to boost his pension – he embarked on what other land users in the area considered impossible at first: harvesting runoff water from the road using modified and enlarged fanya chini (a channel with the earth thrown down slope) and fanya juu terraces (embankment above the channel). His experience has sensitised him to the impact of extra moisture, and has made him aware of the need to utilise runoff water that would otherwise be wasted. In Western Gujarat and some parts of Saurashtra also, farmers have harnessed road side water for well recharge rather than taking it directly into the field. -Ed. Vol 12(3) Jul-Sep 2001 Search for Sustainability Science Long vilified as sorcerers, Kenya’s Nganyi rainmakers with meteorological equipment consisting of trees, pots and herbs are being enlisted to mitigate the effects of climate change (Kenya’s rainmakers called to combat climate change, Jean- Marc Mojon | Maseno, Kenya - Sep 20 2009 07:35). Of late, the scientific world has begun embracing them as partners in unraveling the never-ending mysteries of Mother Nature. As part of a two-year project, funded by the International Development Research Centre, a museum will be set up at Nganyi shrine. The project’s team leader, Prof Laban Ogallo, who is also the head of the Climate Prediction and Application Centre (ICPAC), run by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), says that the aim of the project is to demystify the knowledge of the Nganyi community as rainmakers. “This will enrich Western methods to improve local communities’ adaptation to climate change,†he adds. Prof Ogallo says that the Nganyi community was selected based on the results of a recent survey carried out by ICPAC and UNEP. “The study revealed that the community has a well-developed indigenous climate forecast system that could be integrated into Western climate forecasts,†he explains (Kenya: Scientists in Rare Joint-Project with Traditional Rainmakers, Cosmas Butunyi, 1 July 2008). Local communities and farmers in Africa have developed intricate systems of gathering, predicting, interpreting and decision-making in relation to weather. Farmers in Nigeria are reported to use the knowledge of weather systems such as rainfall, thunderstorms, windstorms, harmattan and sunshine to plan for future weather. (Ajibade and Shokemi, 2003 www.ipcc.ch /publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch9s9-6- 2.html) Indigenous methods of weather forecasting are known to complement farmers’ planning activities in Nigeria. A similar study in Burkina Faso showed that farmers’ forecasting knowledge encompasses shared and selective experiences. Elderly male farmers formulate hypotheses about seasonal rainfall by observing natural phenomena, while cultural and ritual specialists draw predictions from divination, visions or dreams (Roncoli et al., 2001). The most widely relied upon indicators are the timing, intensity and duration of cold temperatures during the early part of the dry season (November to January). Other forecasting indicators include the timing of fruiting by certain local trees, the water level in streams and ponds, the nesting behaviour of small quail like birds, and insect behaviour in rubbish heaps outside compound walls (Roncoli et al., 2001 www. ipcc.ch /publications _and_ data /ar4 /wg2/en/ch9s9-6- 2.html). Vol 21(2) Apr-Jun 2010 From grassroots to global: International competition for scouting innovation The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) announced the First International Competition for scouting grassroots innovations in survival technologies in association with SRISTI and the Honey Bee Network. The response was spectacular with as many as twelve countries participating in it. The countries from which we received responses (figures in the bracket gives number of entries) were India (42), Nigeria (6), Nepal (8), St. Lucia (10), Chile (1), Turkey (1), Uganda (23), China (1), Ethiopia (1), Pakistan (4), Benin (2) and Kenya (14). The entries have been rated on the basis of six defined criteria on five point rating scales by four different judges. The criteria used were uniqueness of practice, novel use of ingredients and their apparent effectiveness, use of local material, prospects for research and development and applicability. All the above criteria carried equal weightage. The entry which won the first prize is published here. First Prize: Extending the Life of Sweet Potato Slices, Auta Deogratias of Uganda received first prize in the First Global Knowledge Contest for his innovative practice regarding the storage of dry sweet potatoes. Well known as a progressive farmer in the County of Soroti, the innovator has many accomplishments to his credit. He was identified as the Best Youth of the Country and one of the farmer innovators in 1999 -World Food Day. Way back in 1997, while removing weeds from his farm he noticed that insects and caterpillars avoided devouring Lantana leaves and also the sweet potato crops in the vicinity of the Lantana bush were spared from attack. This gave him the idea to use the leaves of Lantana camara for storing dry sweet potatoes up to a period of six months (Also refer Honey Bee 7(1): 7, 1996; 8(1): 3, 1997; 10(4): 7, 1999 for practices using Lantana camara). The procedure starts with harvesting sweet potatoes followed by peeling of their outer skin and slicing them. The sliced pieces are dried and are usually stored in the granary that had been thoroughly cleaned and pores closed by smearing with cowdung. He places a layer of Lantana leaves on the granary floor followed by a 40-45 cm layer of dry sweet potato slices which is again followed by a layer of Lantana leaves and so on. Depending on the height of the granary, the numbers of layers are adjusted. Each granary has a storage capacity of about 360 kg of sweet potatoes. With frequent onset of famine, early rotting of the harvest and attack by pest, Auta had no other alternative but to innovate a procedure to enhance the preservation time of sweet potatoes from three months to the next harvest. Sweet potato is one of the staple foods in Uganda and its neighbouring countries, Kenya and Somalia, next to Cassava and is served in a variety of cuisine. Auta strongly recommends using Lantana leaves for storing other products likewise. He is enthusiastic about organic farming which is part of a soil fertility management program and also water harvesting which is of utmost significance in an area receiving less than 1000-1500 mm rainfall. The scarcity of water encourages conservation of water and Auta manages in doing so in his field by harvesting rain water and stymieing water from washing away the loose sandy top soil. This allows water to percolate into the soil thereby increasing soil moisture content. He adds cowdung manure that he collects from his neighbours to increase the quality of the soil. He feels that he is still a small farmer with merely 20 acres of lands to experiment on and is eager to share the results of his experiments with others. Scout: Olupot. H.I. Institution: Department of Agriculture Designation: S.a.a.o( Address: Dept. of Agriculture, P.O. Box 61. Soroti, Uganda.Vol 11(1) Jan-Mar 2000 Indigenous knowledge from Tanzania Jane Kitange Rice hull ash for scaring pests of maize and sorghum The rice hulls are burnt and the ash is allowed to cool. This ash is then mixed with sorghum or maize before storage. For 90 kg bag of maize 20 litre tin of ashes is used. If the rice hulls are not burnt then ratio is usually kept as 1:1 for one tin of grains one tin of un-burnt rice hull is used. Source: Bahati farmers group of Uhambule, Mbeya Bulrush-millet brans keep away Scania The stored grains need to be protected against the attack of insect pest like the large grain borer.The farmers group in Mbozi (Africa) line the floors of the granary with a layer of bulrush millet bran. They fill grains to about half a foot in the granary, then add a layer of bulrush millet bran. Keep on layering alternately with bulrush millet bran and grains. The thickness of the bran layer should be about 7cm. If the grains are to be stored in a bag then for 90 kg of grains two litres of bulrush millet brans is required. Source: Idiwili Hospital Mbozi, Mbeya Cypress for storing grains ‘Cypress’ (Cupressus lusitanica) tree grows in the colder regions of Africa such as Iringa, Kilimanjaro. The tree is generally used by many people for decoration during Christmas. The granary where grains are to be stored is first swept with green cypress branches. These are then spread in the granary. Grains are filled up to depth of one foot. A layer of cypress branches is placed. Alternate layers of cypress branches and grains are added till the granary is full. When grains are to be stored in a bag, cypress leaves are rubbed on inner side of bag. Then the grains are filled in the bag. Cypress branches are further spread in the bags and also layered between storage bags. Vol 10(3) Jul-Sep 1999 Zootherapy based medicinal traditions in Brazil Eraldo Medeiros Costa-Neto The medicinal interaction between human and animals (zootherapy) has been prevalent both in indigenous and western societies for a long time (Weiss 1947; Rosner 1992). Popular remedies were elaborated from parts of the animal body, from products of its metabolism (corporal secretions and excrements), or from other animal materials (nests and cocoons). An early record for animal-based medicine can also be traced back to Tobias’ Book (Catholic Bible), in which Raphael the Angel prescribed the use of a fish’s liver content for the treatment of ophthalmic problems (Marques 1995). Today out of 252 essential chemicals that have been selected by the World Health Organization, 11.1% have plant origin, while 8.7% come from animals (Marques 1997). Zootherapy in Artisanal Fishermen Community of Siribinha Beach Brazil accounts for 300 animal species, which are used as medicines. Marques (1995) record a total of 66 fish species in the folk medicine of fishing communities from 13 Brazilian States. Zootherapy and Modern Science Several compounds have been extracted from fish and employed as remedies in formal medicine. Finkl (1984), for example, refers to Eptatretus stoutii, Dasyatis sabina, and Taricha sp., as sources of cardiac stimulants, anti-tumor, and analgesic, respectively. Cultural boundaries: A tool for achieving sustainable Zootherapy The cultural perspective of a given human nature interrelationship includes the way people perceive, use, allocate, transfer, and manage their natural resources (Johannes 1993). In this way, discussing the relationship between foods provided by the environment, their trophic use, the physiological consequences resulting from their eating, as well as the supporting social-economic structures are some of the key elements to achieve sustainability (Bahuchet 1997). However, the demand for natural products from marine organisms can become a serious problem if collectors overexploit the typically sessile organisms (Norse 1993). Such activities demand conservation measures and making laws but decision makers should view the human-nature interactions within a cultural dimension so that such laws do not debar the local communities from using animals for medicinal purposes. The responsibility of negative impacts on biological diversity should not only be restricted to the traditional users, but also extended to the pharmaceutical industries (Marques 1997). A suitable alternative for the recovery of species under threat can be to turn them into manageable resources by using both folk and scientific techniques (Fitshugh and Wilhelm 1995). But an effective conservation program will only be achieved if ethno-zoological knowledge of vanishing cultures is studied and respected. Aliño, P M, G J B Cajipe, E T Ganzon-Fortes, W Y Licuanan, N E Montano and L M Tupas. 1990. The use of marine organisms in folk medicine and horticulture: a preliminary study. Seaweed Information Center Newsletter, Leaflet 1. Amato, I. 1992. From ‘hunter magic’, a pharmacopoeia Science 258, 1306. Vol 11(2) Apr-Jun 2000 Paper birds to protect germinating crop, VietnamMui Nguyen Thi At the onset of the spring, farmers of the Binh Minh village, Cam Binch district, Haihung province, Vietnam, sow green beans in the field. This village is located in East-North of Red River Delta and has a tropical climate. During this period, flocks of migrating birds which pass over this region raid the fields. About 100 birds fly in each flock and they eat away much of the newly sown green beans often ‘stealing’ more than half of the sown seed. The villagers do not know the name of the birds, but they say it is red coloured.( To keep away these raiding flocks, the villagers make white paper birds locally known as ‘Egretta Garzetten’ and attach them to sticks which they anchor in the fields. When the flock of the migrating birds, look on the ground they see white birds and fly straight since they are scared of them. However, nobody knows how exactly it works! Vol 6(1) Jan-Mar 1995 Zuni’s cases against US Government In the early seventies, leaders of the Zuni Indian Tribe were concerned that some of their sacred shrines were endangered by third parties who might desecrate them or otherwise try to interfere with traditional Zuni worship. This triggered the resolve to resort to legal action to safeguard Zuni customs, traditions and religion. With the support of the Governor Robert E. Lewis, Zuni tribal leaders met legal experts and established two primary goals. (i) To obtain ownership of sacred lands for the Zuni tribe (ii) To institute a claims case against the United States for Zuni lands taken many years ago without compensation to the tribe. Initial hurdle Although it appeared that the Zuni claim was justified on moral grounds, it was precluded by law from bringing an action against the United States, since it had not filed a law suit with the Indian Claims Commission. The only way to overcome this legal hurdle was to present the case to the United States Congress and persuade it to pass a special law to allow the tribe to sue the US for taking the Zuni lands. The major breakthrough came on May 15, 1978, when such a law was passed by the Congress after six years of intensive lobbying in Washington D.C. The trial and the judgment At the trial held in Salt Lake City in March 1982, the tribe presented archaeological and anthropological evidence, together with oral history, to establish that the Zuni tribe from time immemorial owned, used, occupied and held by aboriginal title, a large tract of land located in the present day states of New Mexico and Arizona. Judge Judith Ann Yannello pronounced her momentous judgment on May 27, 1987, holding the United States liable for taking of all lands claimed by the Zuni tribe. The decision was a total victory for the Zuni people. The question of value, however, was left to the second phase of the lawsuit. The Act of August 28, 1984 enabled the Tribe to regain control over the sacred Zuni lands of Zuni Heaven located in the State of Arizona. An area of nearly 12,000 acres became part of a new Zuni Reservation in the State. The Act protected the Zunis’ right to make their traditional pilgrimage to the area without disturbance or desecration of sacred sites. Zuni II was a lawsuit designed to seek compensation from the US for damages to the Zuni Reservation lands caused by its acts of omissions. The lawsuit was extremely difficult because from a legal standpoint it was hard to prove what caused the erosion of the lands to take place. Much of it had occurred before any living person was born. Many technical experts had to be hired to deal with the issues of causation and damage.Senator Pete Domenici championed the Zuni cause which resulted in the Zuni Land Conservation Act of October 31, 1990. Two basic purposes were achieved through this Act: (i) Attention was drawn to the need for a comprehensive sustainable development program for Zuni. (ii) The US was made responsible to appropriate money for the restoration of Zuni Reservation lands on a permanent basis. A $25,000,000 Trust Fund was created to provide income to the Tribe on an annual basis for the land restoration work and sustainable development plan. Source: Boyden Stephen, Zuni Claims, Cases, Zuni History, Section 2,pg. 9, 1991. Vol 7(3) Jun- Sep 1996 Rebirth of indigenous farming systems after agricultural collapse in Colombia In the picturesque Cauca valley of southern Colombia there are two small farms (total area 6.5 ha) that stand out as islands in an ocean of chemically intensive agriculture. They are model farms established by Prof. Mario Mejia. After serving in the Agriculture Department of the Government of Colombia Prof. Mejia is now involved in propagating indigenous farming systems among the small farmers of Columbia. He resides at Carrera 43, Cali, Colombia. Exploring alternatives to green revolution agriculture Prof. Mejia studied green revolution style agronomy at the National University of Colombia and became a technical adviser on commercial crops (such as sugar cane, rice, African oil palm and cotton) with the Colombia government. This position gave him an opportunity to tour his country extensively. Prof. Mejia also taught climatology in several agricultural schools during which he developed a special interest in agricultural production under natural conditions. A project in 1976 in the Amazonian region of Colombia gave him the opportunity to study natural agriculture as practised by indigenous people of that region. In 1994 Prof. Mejia started his own demonstration farms for small farmers who had been adversely affected by the coffee crisis. On these farms alternative agricultural models were designed and set up, based on a learning process developed by creative/ innovative farmers in collaboration with the local NGO (CIPAV in Cali and IMCA in Buga). The objective of the demonstration farms “Manantial†and “Horizontes†is to present alternative agricultural models to the small and poor farmers, especially those located in the coffee growing regions. While designing the farms, the ideas of several schools of alternative agricultural thought were considered including biodiversity, associative, microbial, trophobiotic, natural farming (based on Masanobu Fukuoka) and permaculture. Land preparation and weeding are carried out in ways that maintain soil structure (through no-till and limited-till techniques) and compost is produced from weed biomass. Perennial crops are given preference. Pest and disease control is affected through natural predators like birds and beneficial insects. Eight different types of compost and half a dozen types of low cost microbial and trophobiotic mixtures are used. Besides, the farms have a recycling system including dry latrines and composting. The farms also seek to establish alternative value systems that emphasise the practice of non violence. Vol 7(4) Oct- Dec 1996 Puka suytu versus Solanum tuberosum: How scientific are the scientific names? - Peru Grimaldo Rengifo Vasquez The scientific name is a concept which carries a particular conception of the world which is different from the Andean one. This naming is not neutral, and in our opinion, affects peasant life in two ways. The first is that the scientific name hides peasant nurturing relegating it to the background if not obliterating it altogether. From then on a potato is not called by the name that makes reference to its qualities and attributes that a given culture appreciates in the nurtured potato, For example puka suytu (in Quechua puka means red and suytu means elongated), but by a generic and universal concept which makes reference to properties that are objective and recognisable by the scientific community. The new language serves as a medium of communication among persons of science but not among the peasant nurturers themselves. Through this objectification, peasant wisdom is replaced by a concept which emerges (in some cases bearing the name of the scientific “discovererâ€) to make reference to a newly discovered reality which transforms the potato into an available resource which can be appropriated, patented and sold. The new term makes reference to and highlights “new†characteristics, and makes appear as something that was not previously identifiable by science and hence cuts its relation with the culture in which it emerged. From being a living being which nurtures and is nurtured by a concrete community, it becomes through articulation of the new name, a universal resource ready to be managed. In this context, peasant nurturance becomes a datum of reality and the peasant becomes a simple “informantâ€. The second way in which scientific nomenclature affects peasant life is when the technician provided with this new scientific knowledge works in the peasants’ plots. The new knowledge implicit in the seed which he/she brings is considered superior to the kind of knowledge associated with the local ecotypes. This superiority is established by virtue of the fact that the technician’s seed has gone through the approved scientific protocols. As a corollary, local ecotypes are considered and are generically named “under exploited minor cropsâ€, “less productive cropsâ€, or “unimproved cropsâ€, etc. As if this was not enough, the so called “improved†variety is projected with the help of marketing and media experts, as being “miraculousâ€. In this way the objective of the scientific community seems to be transforming local life, stimulating erosion and loss of not only local wisdom, but also of the ecotypes which make possible the culture of the nurturance of the potato. Thus it is not naive and innocuous to call our potatoes Solanum tuberosum. Vol 7(1) Jan- Mar 1996 Indigenous pest control methods in Sri lanka Dr Rohana Ulluwishewa Prior to the availability of chemical pesticides, paddy farmers in Sri Lanka used a wide range of traditional pest control practices. These practices are rapidly disappearing as farmers adopt high yielding varieties (HYV) of rice which necessitate use of chemical inputs. I conducted a study with 30 farmers from the Badulla and Hambantota Districts. The farmers’ practices can be categorised as biological, botanical or mechanical methods. In addition, some practices are supplemented with religious ceremonies and rituals. Biological methods In and around their fields farmers maintain habitats and develop micro-climates required for the vertebrates, reptiles, birds, and mammals that prey on crop pests. The farmers I interviewed described some religious rituals which upon close scrutiny, appear to help in attracting a number of crop pest predators. For example, Ptyas mucosus, commonly known as the rat snake and the lizard, Varanus salvator, feed on rats and a number of other small mammalian and crustacean paddy pests. Vol 4 (1) Jan-Mar 1993 The heuristic used here is to provide a sanctuary to predators of crop pests in order to strengthen pest-predator balance in the field. -EdBotanical methods The paddy farmers portrayed a facile knowledge of the botanical species in their environment and identified a wide range of plants that they had used for pest control. Diospyros affinin (kaluwel), Anamirta cocculus (tithtawel), and Ananas comosus (pineapple) are believed to control flies such as Orceolia oryzea (gap massa) and Atherigona oryzae (kanda massa). Euphorbia (daluk) is used by farmers to control Tryporyza incertulu (puruk panuwa). The leaves of these plants are crushed and added at the point of impounding water (water body) for irrigating rest of the paddy. The seeds of Garyota urens (kitul) are crushed and added to water at the field entry point to destroy paddy damaging worms. The leaves of Pongamia pinnata (karadha (L.) Pierre) and Crotalaria retusa L. (keppitiya) are added to paddy soil to control rice pests. Cycas circinalis (madu) Cymbopogon citratus are planted and hung around paddies; farmers believed they emit odours that repel certain rice pests. Again, to control rats, pieces of raw Garica papaya are spread in paddies. The farmers believe papaya has a chemical substance, causing tissue damage in rats’ mouths. Farmers, world over use wood ash, but those interviewed found Cymbopogon nardus (L.) plants particularly effective in controlling Spodoptera mauritia (gedawella). Vol 4 (1) Jan-Mar 1993 Most of the botanicals mentioned here are “natural pesticidesâ€. Hence the heuristic is to destroy pests using natural substances rather than chemicals. Using irrigation water as a carrier for low cost application is a well known method of application and is effective in those pests that are found close to the base of the plant or residing in the top-soil. One case described is that of a repellent. The use of papaya to affect the tissue of rats in their mouth and render them harmless is unique. It remains to be seen whether the effect on the tissue is reversible or permanent and what is the causal agent. The effect may be due to the action of enzymes in papaya that act on the tender tissue in rats, but this is a matter of speculation and research. The heuristic in more general terms could be described as “disarming the opponentâ€. Similar practices have been documented from the farmers of Nigeria. In the paper Effectiveness of botanical formulations in vegetable production and bio-diversity preservation in Ondo State, Nigeria Okunlola A. I. and Akinrinnola O. have shown the use of various plants and species used effectively as pesticides. Okunlola I, & Akinrinnola, O (2014). Effectiveness of botanical formulations in vegetable production and bio-diversity preservation in Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry, 6(1), 6-13. Learning from apes Michael A Huffman In the course of his research on wild chimpanzees in Tanzania, he provided the first scientifically reported evidence that animals ingest medicinal plants when suffering from illness and then recover. This was done by observations of chimpanzees chewing bitter pith of a plant, locally known as mjonso (Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Compositae)) by the WaTongwe people in western Tanzania. While ingesting the pith from the young shoots of mjonso, chimpanzees remove the outer bark and leaves to chew only on the inner pith, from which they extract the extremely bitter juice. It was later found that the bitter compounds in the leaves and bark contained very toxic substances that inhibit most insects and other animals from eating it. Mature chimpanzees in proximity to sick individuals chewing mjonso bitter pith show little or no interest in ingesting the pith, as they seem to know that it is used for medicine. Infants on the other hand try to taste the pith discarded by their ill mothers. In this way, the young get their first exposure to both the sick behaviour of their mothers and her ingestion of the extremely bitter tasting plant. Chimpanzees, and indeed most animals, do not directly teach their offspring what to eat, rather the young learn by watching and trying for themselves what their elders eat. The fact that humans share medicinal practices with animals is obvious from the following example V. amygdalina is used by many African ethnic groups across the continent as medicine. This plant is prescribed as a treatment for ailments such as malarial fever, schistosomiasis, amoebic dysentery, several other intestinal parasites, stomach aches and a variety of other diseases. The chimpanzees, who share the bounty of the forest with these ethnic human populations, too use this plant as a treatment for intestinal parasites, diarrhoea and stomach upset. Vol 19(2) April-June 2008 |
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Honey Bee 25(4) & 26(1) 73-81, 2014-2015 (25 years celebration) |
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